Project Elephant Under the Project Elephant, states
having free-ranging population of wild elephants are given
financial as well as technical and scientific assistance to ensure long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natur:af habitats.
Main activities of the project are:
. ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and
migratory routes of elephants;
. development of scientific and planned management for conservation of elephant habitats and viable population of wild Asiatic elephant in India;
. promotion of measures for mitigation of manelephant conflict in crucial habitats and moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats;
Showing posts with label Geography. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Geography. Show all posts
Friday, October 30, 2009
Project Tiger
Project Tiger Project Tiger was launched in 1973 on the basis of the recommendations of a special task force of the Indian Board of Wildlife to (i) ensure maintenance of available population
. of tiger in India, and (ii) preserve the areas of such biological importance as a national heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people.
Project Tiger is a centrally-sponsored scheme. The states receive 100 per cent financial assistance for non-recurring items and 50 per cent for approved recurring items. The government has approved the following major initiatives for implementation during the Ninth Plan:
. creation of six new tiger reserves;
. project allowances to the fielCl staff of tiger
reserves as an incentive measure for officials who work in very harsh and deficient conditions; and
'. development of paramilitary force in troubled tiger reserves at 100 per cent central assistance.
A beneficiary-oriented scheme for tribal development has been launched to rehabilitate the tribal and other families under relocation plan, to shift the families from inside the protected areas to outside. The main components are:
. identification of the villages to be
relocated,
. identification of sites for rClocation,
and
. preparation of rehabilitation projects.
An eco-development scheme in and around national parks and sanctuaries including tiger reserves was launched to provide alternate sources of sustenance to the communities living at the fringes of national parks and sanctuaries including tiger reserves to improve the ecological productivity of the buffer zones of protected areas through the involvement of these communities in protecting these sanctuaries and national parks and their wildlife.
The various activities undertaken under the scheme are: habitat improvement; alternate source of energy; infrastructure building/roads, etc.; and small welfare measures.
'India Eco-Development Project is being implemented in seven protected areas in seven different states as the externally aided centrally-sponsored plan scheme under Eco-Development Around Protected Areas Including Tiger Reserves. It covers two national parks and five tiger reserv~s. The main aim of the project is to conserve biodiversity through eco-development, effective and extensive support for eco-development and preparation of future bio-diversity projects. The project is implemented in seven areas, namely, Buxa, Palamau, Nagarhole, Periyar, Pench, RanthamboreTiger Reserve and Gir National Park.
There are twenty-seven tiger reserves in the country (see table).
. of tiger in India, and (ii) preserve the areas of such biological importance as a national heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people.
Project Tiger is a centrally-sponsored scheme. The states receive 100 per cent financial assistance for non-recurring items and 50 per cent for approved recurring items. The government has approved the following major initiatives for implementation during the Ninth Plan:
. creation of six new tiger reserves;
. project allowances to the fielCl staff of tiger
reserves as an incentive measure for officials who work in very harsh and deficient conditions; and
'. development of paramilitary force in troubled tiger reserves at 100 per cent central assistance.
A beneficiary-oriented scheme for tribal development has been launched to rehabilitate the tribal and other families under relocation plan, to shift the families from inside the protected areas to outside. The main components are:
. identification of the villages to be
relocated,
. identification of sites for rClocation,
and
. preparation of rehabilitation projects.
An eco-development scheme in and around national parks and sanctuaries including tiger reserves was launched to provide alternate sources of sustenance to the communities living at the fringes of national parks and sanctuaries including tiger reserves to improve the ecological productivity of the buffer zones of protected areas through the involvement of these communities in protecting these sanctuaries and national parks and their wildlife.
The various activities undertaken under the scheme are: habitat improvement; alternate source of energy; infrastructure building/roads, etc.; and small welfare measures.
'India Eco-Development Project is being implemented in seven protected areas in seven different states as the externally aided centrally-sponsored plan scheme under Eco-Development Around Protected Areas Including Tiger Reserves. It covers two national parks and five tiger reserv~s. The main aim of the project is to conserve biodiversity through eco-development, effective and extensive support for eco-development and preparation of future bio-diversity projects. The project is implemented in seven areas, namely, Buxa, Palamau, Nagarhole, Periyar, Pench, RanthamboreTiger Reserve and Gir National Park.
There are twenty-seven tiger reserves in the country (see table).
ENDANGERED FAUNA IN INDIA
ENDANGERED FAUNA IN INDIA
Some of the animal species listed below have been identified as endangered ones in India.
Mammals
Primates About 12 out of 19 are endangered. The chief species are, Haolock gibbon (the only ape in India), liontailed macaque. stumptailed macaque, pigtailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, the capped, golden and phayre's leaf monkey.
Pholidota The Chinese pangolin and the Indian pangolin. Carnivora About 28 out of 36 are endangered. These include mainly Indian wolf, jackal, red fox, Indian fox, wild dog, the Himalayan brown bear, sloth bear, red panda, Ermine, ratel, Malabar Civet, tiger Civet, striped hyaena, Tiger, Indian lion, leopard, desert cat, lynx, caracal, jungle cat, leopard cat, Palla's cat, golden cat, Marbled cat and other cats, dugong.
Perissodactyla Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, smaller one-horned and the Asiatic two-horned rhinoceros, Indian wild ass. Tibetan wild ass.
Arliodactyla Andaman wild pig, Kashmir stag or hangul, swamp deer or barasingha. brow-antlered deer, Alpine musk deer, forest musk deer, mouse-deer, blackbuck or Indian antelope, chinkara or Indian gazelle, chiru or Tibetan antelope, four-horned antelope or chowsinga, gour or Indian bison, wild yak, wild buffalo. tahrs.
Lagomorpha Assam rabbit.
Rodentia Eleven species of flying squirrels and two of marmots.
Cetacea Gangetic dolphin, baleen whales, and other whales and marine dolphines.
Birds These include geese. swans, pinkheued duck. whitewinged wood duck, grey teal whooper swan, mute swan. Indian black-crested baza, blyth's baza, black eagle, many bawks, eagles and falcons, game birds, Bamboo partridge. Red spuriowl, painted spuriowl, mountain quail, blood pheasant, satyrtragopan, Blyth's tragopan, several pheasants, koklas pheas- . ant, chir pheasant. peacock pheasant, Indian peafowl. several cranes like eastern common crane, blacknecked crane. Hooded crane, great white crane. masked finfoot, several bustards and floricans like little bustard, houbra bustard, the great Indian bustard, the Bengal florican. Indian skimmer, the Nicobar pigeon, several frogmouths particularly Hodgson's frog mouth. the horn bills as white throated brown bornbill, the rufusnecked hornbill, wreathed hornbill, the great piea hornbill. Indian pied hornbill and the Malabar pied hornbill.
Reptiles Several turtle, tortoise and terrapin as leatherback or trunk turtle. the green sea turtle. the loggerhead and the hawksbill or tortoise shell turtle, the estuarine crocidile. the I marsh crocodile and the gharial; monitor lizards: Indian python.
Amphibia The viviparous toad. Indian salamander. !
Invertebrates
Crustacea The coconut or robber crab. (a large hermit crab).
Insecta Some dragonflies, butterflies and moths and beetles. most endangered ones is tiIIyards dragonfly: of moths and butterflies, 55 forms are known in India, of which 14 are rare.
Some of the animal species listed below have been identified as endangered ones in India.
Mammals
Primates About 12 out of 19 are endangered. The chief species are, Haolock gibbon (the only ape in India), liontailed macaque. stumptailed macaque, pigtailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, the capped, golden and phayre's leaf monkey.
Pholidota The Chinese pangolin and the Indian pangolin. Carnivora About 28 out of 36 are endangered. These include mainly Indian wolf, jackal, red fox, Indian fox, wild dog, the Himalayan brown bear, sloth bear, red panda, Ermine, ratel, Malabar Civet, tiger Civet, striped hyaena, Tiger, Indian lion, leopard, desert cat, lynx, caracal, jungle cat, leopard cat, Palla's cat, golden cat, Marbled cat and other cats, dugong.
Perissodactyla Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, smaller one-horned and the Asiatic two-horned rhinoceros, Indian wild ass. Tibetan wild ass.
Arliodactyla Andaman wild pig, Kashmir stag or hangul, swamp deer or barasingha. brow-antlered deer, Alpine musk deer, forest musk deer, mouse-deer, blackbuck or Indian antelope, chinkara or Indian gazelle, chiru or Tibetan antelope, four-horned antelope or chowsinga, gour or Indian bison, wild yak, wild buffalo. tahrs.
Lagomorpha Assam rabbit.
Rodentia Eleven species of flying squirrels and two of marmots.
Cetacea Gangetic dolphin, baleen whales, and other whales and marine dolphines.
Birds These include geese. swans, pinkheued duck. whitewinged wood duck, grey teal whooper swan, mute swan. Indian black-crested baza, blyth's baza, black eagle, many bawks, eagles and falcons, game birds, Bamboo partridge. Red spuriowl, painted spuriowl, mountain quail, blood pheasant, satyrtragopan, Blyth's tragopan, several pheasants, koklas pheas- . ant, chir pheasant. peacock pheasant, Indian peafowl. several cranes like eastern common crane, blacknecked crane. Hooded crane, great white crane. masked finfoot, several bustards and floricans like little bustard, houbra bustard, the great Indian bustard, the Bengal florican. Indian skimmer, the Nicobar pigeon, several frogmouths particularly Hodgson's frog mouth. the horn bills as white throated brown bornbill, the rufusnecked hornbill, wreathed hornbill, the great piea hornbill. Indian pied hornbill and the Malabar pied hornbill.
Reptiles Several turtle, tortoise and terrapin as leatherback or trunk turtle. the green sea turtle. the loggerhead and the hawksbill or tortoise shell turtle, the estuarine crocidile. the I marsh crocodile and the gharial; monitor lizards: Indian python.
Amphibia The viviparous toad. Indian salamander. !
Invertebrates
Crustacea The coconut or robber crab. (a large hermit crab).
Insecta Some dragonflies, butterflies and moths and beetles. most endangered ones is tiIIyards dragonfly: of moths and butterflies, 55 forms are known in India, of which 14 are rare.
CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE IN INDIA
CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE IN INDIA Due to continuous increase in the number of endangered species, many steps have been taken to protect and manage the wildlife of the country. Governmental and non-governmental organisations at Centre and state levels have been set up to protect the wildlife. The wildlife management in India aims at (i) protection of natural habitats through a controlled and limited exploitation of species; (ii) maintenance of the viable number of species in protected areas (national park, sanctuary, biosphere reserve, etc.); (iii) establishment of biosphere reserves for plant and animal species; and (iv) protection through legislation.
Wildlife Conservation Programmes A number of Wildlife Acts have been made from time to time by the Union and the state governments. Important among them are:
(i) Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873 (ii) All India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879
(iii) The Wild Birds and Animals Prohibition Act, 1912 (iv) Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1932
(v) Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1954
(vi) Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL), 1952
(vii) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Indian Board for Wildlife (lBWL) The IBWL IS the apex advisory body in the field of wildlife conservJtion in the country and is headed by the prime minister of India. Its main functions are:
. to advise the Central and state governments for promotion of conservation and effective control of poaching of wildlife;
. to advise on the setting up of national parks sanctuaries and zoological gardens;
. to advise on the policy regarding export of living animals, skins, furs, feathers and other wildlife products;
. to review the progress in the field of wildlife conservation and suggest measure for its improvement;
. to promote public interest in wildlife and on need of its preservation in harmony with natural and human environment;
.. to assist in the formation of wildlife societies;
. to act as central coordinating agency for these
societies; and
. to advise the union government on any matter that it may refer to the Board.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 The Act, accepted by all states except Jammu and Kashmir which has its own Act, governs wildlife conservation and protection of endangered species. The Act prohibits trade in rare and endangered species. The 1992 Act has been amended to make the provisions more effective. Endangered species of plants and animals have been brought under the purview of the Act.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) The WII was established in 1982 under the Ministry of Agriculture and subsequently brought to the Ministry of Environment and Forest. The main mandate of this institute is to impart training to government and non-government personnel, to carry out research and training activities and advise on matter of conservation and management of wildlife resources.
Central Zoo Authority (CZA) The CZA with its headquarters in New Delhi was established in 1992 under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to upgrade the management of zoos in the cOlmtry with a view to enhance their role in conservation. It has 10 members and one whole time member secretary and is chaired by the Union minister for environment and forest.
National Zoological Park, New Delhi It is spread over an area of 176 acre and houses about 1200 animals and birds of 135 species. The effort at the Park is to maximise the visitor satisfaction by maintaining a healthy collection of a variety of endangered as well as common fauna.
Protected Areas Network Conservation of wildlife is a comprehensive system of protected areas. There are different categories of protected areas with different objectives. These include: national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, nature re'serves, natural monuments, cultural ,landscapes, etc.
There are 92 national parks and 500 wildlife sanctuaries in the country covering an area of 1.56 lakh sq km. The Union government provides 100 per cent assistance to the states for non-recurring items of expenditure for national parks and sanctuaries, whereas 50 per cent assistance is provided for recurring items of expenditure also in case of national parks.
Wildlife Conservation Programmes A number of Wildlife Acts have been made from time to time by the Union and the state governments. Important among them are:
(i) Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873 (ii) All India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879
(iii) The Wild Birds and Animals Prohibition Act, 1912 (iv) Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1932
(v) Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1954
(vi) Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL), 1952
(vii) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Indian Board for Wildlife (lBWL) The IBWL IS the apex advisory body in the field of wildlife conservJtion in the country and is headed by the prime minister of India. Its main functions are:
. to advise the Central and state governments for promotion of conservation and effective control of poaching of wildlife;
. to advise on the setting up of national parks sanctuaries and zoological gardens;
. to advise on the policy regarding export of living animals, skins, furs, feathers and other wildlife products;
. to review the progress in the field of wildlife conservation and suggest measure for its improvement;
. to promote public interest in wildlife and on need of its preservation in harmony with natural and human environment;
.. to assist in the formation of wildlife societies;
. to act as central coordinating agency for these
societies; and
. to advise the union government on any matter that it may refer to the Board.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 The Act, accepted by all states except Jammu and Kashmir which has its own Act, governs wildlife conservation and protection of endangered species. The Act prohibits trade in rare and endangered species. The 1992 Act has been amended to make the provisions more effective. Endangered species of plants and animals have been brought under the purview of the Act.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) The WII was established in 1982 under the Ministry of Agriculture and subsequently brought to the Ministry of Environment and Forest. The main mandate of this institute is to impart training to government and non-government personnel, to carry out research and training activities and advise on matter of conservation and management of wildlife resources.
Central Zoo Authority (CZA) The CZA with its headquarters in New Delhi was established in 1992 under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to upgrade the management of zoos in the cOlmtry with a view to enhance their role in conservation. It has 10 members and one whole time member secretary and is chaired by the Union minister for environment and forest.
National Zoological Park, New Delhi It is spread over an area of 176 acre and houses about 1200 animals and birds of 135 species. The effort at the Park is to maximise the visitor satisfaction by maintaining a healthy collection of a variety of endangered as well as common fauna.
Protected Areas Network Conservation of wildlife is a comprehensive system of protected areas. There are different categories of protected areas with different objectives. These include: national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, nature re'serves, natural monuments, cultural ,landscapes, etc.
There are 92 national parks and 500 wildlife sanctuaries in the country covering an area of 1.56 lakh sq km. The Union government provides 100 per cent assistance to the states for non-recurring items of expenditure for national parks and sanctuaries, whereas 50 per cent assistance is provided for recurring items of expenditure also in case of national parks.
ECOLOGICAL DIVISIONS
ECOLOGICAL DIVISIONS India is divided into the following five ecological sub-regions for studying its varied wildlife.
I. The Himalayan Mountain System This region is again divided into the following three regions with their characteristic wildlife:
(a) The Himalaya Foothills Big mammals of north India like elephant, sambar, swamp deer, cheetal, hog deer, great Indian one-homed rhinoceros, wild buffalo, golden langur, etc.
(b) Western Himalayas (high altihlde region) Wild ass, wild goats (thar, markhor, ibex) and sheep (Nayan, Marcopolo's sheep, bharal or blue sheep); antelopes (chiru and Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul or Kashmir stag and slou or Sikkim stag, musk deer); smaller mammals like marmots and pikas, etc.
(c) Eastern Himalayas Red panda, hog badgers, crestless porcupines, goat antelopes (scrow, gora\, takins).
II. Peninsular Indian Sub-region This is a true home of Indian wildlife with two distinct zones (a) peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of the Ganges river system, and (b) desert region of Rajasthan.
(a) Peninsular India It is the home of wildlife thriving in tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous vegetation. Important fauna include elephant; wild boar; deers (cheetal or axis deer, hog deer, swamp deer or bursinga, sambhar); antelopes (four-homed antelope, nilgai, blackbuck, etc.); wild dog; and gaur (a bull).
(b) Indian Desert Animals are mostly burrowing ones. Among mammals rodents are the largest group. The Indian desert gerbils are mouselike rodents. Other animals are wild ass, blackbuck, desert cat, caracal, etc. Among birds the most discussed is Great Indian bustard.
III. Tropical Evergreen Forest Region or Indo-Malayan Sub-region The region with heavy rainfall is very rich in animals. There are wild elephants, gaur and other larger animals. Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent ones are hoolock gibbons (only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or leaf monkey, etc.
IV. Andaman and Nicobar Islands These islands are houses for many species of mammals, reptiles and marine animals. Among mammals, bats and rats are predominant. They constitute about 75 per cent of the total mammals found on islands. Pigs, crab-eating macaque, palm civet and deers are other important land animals of the islands. Dugong, false killer whale and dolphin are prominent marine mammals. The islands house rare birds such as Narcondum hornbill, Nicobar pigeon and megapode.
V. Mangrove Swamps of Sunderbans Fish, small crabs, and the Dorippe (having an unusual association with sea anempne), weaver ants, spotted deer, pigs, lizards, etc., are important animal lives. The most interesting animal is the man-eater tiger of Sunderbans.
I. The Himalayan Mountain System This region is again divided into the following three regions with their characteristic wildlife:
(a) The Himalaya Foothills Big mammals of north India like elephant, sambar, swamp deer, cheetal, hog deer, great Indian one-homed rhinoceros, wild buffalo, golden langur, etc.
(b) Western Himalayas (high altihlde region) Wild ass, wild goats (thar, markhor, ibex) and sheep (Nayan, Marcopolo's sheep, bharal or blue sheep); antelopes (chiru and Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul or Kashmir stag and slou or Sikkim stag, musk deer); smaller mammals like marmots and pikas, etc.
(c) Eastern Himalayas Red panda, hog badgers, crestless porcupines, goat antelopes (scrow, gora\, takins).
II. Peninsular Indian Sub-region This is a true home of Indian wildlife with two distinct zones (a) peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of the Ganges river system, and (b) desert region of Rajasthan.
(a) Peninsular India It is the home of wildlife thriving in tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous vegetation. Important fauna include elephant; wild boar; deers (cheetal or axis deer, hog deer, swamp deer or bursinga, sambhar); antelopes (four-homed antelope, nilgai, blackbuck, etc.); wild dog; and gaur (a bull).
(b) Indian Desert Animals are mostly burrowing ones. Among mammals rodents are the largest group. The Indian desert gerbils are mouselike rodents. Other animals are wild ass, blackbuck, desert cat, caracal, etc. Among birds the most discussed is Great Indian bustard.
III. Tropical Evergreen Forest Region or Indo-Malayan Sub-region The region with heavy rainfall is very rich in animals. There are wild elephants, gaur and other larger animals. Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent ones are hoolock gibbons (only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or leaf monkey, etc.
IV. Andaman and Nicobar Islands These islands are houses for many species of mammals, reptiles and marine animals. Among mammals, bats and rats are predominant. They constitute about 75 per cent of the total mammals found on islands. Pigs, crab-eating macaque, palm civet and deers are other important land animals of the islands. Dugong, false killer whale and dolphin are prominent marine mammals. The islands house rare birds such as Narcondum hornbill, Nicobar pigeon and megapode.
V. Mangrove Swamps of Sunderbans Fish, small crabs, and the Dorippe (having an unusual association with sea anempne), weaver ants, spotted deer, pigs, lizards, etc., are important animal lives. The most interesting animal is the man-eater tiger of Sunderbans.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA
The Wildlife Institute of India has identified ten biogeographical zones in India which are rich in genetic diversity of plant and animal life.
Trans-Himalayan region Though with a sparse vegetation, this region has the richest wild sheep and goat community to be found anywhere in the world. The rare snow leopard and the migratory black-necked crane are found in this zone.
Himalayan region This region has one of the highest mountain ranges in the world and is rich in species biodiversity.
Indian Desert The region has extensive grasslands with many species including the endangered great Indian bustard.
Semi-arid region Located adjoining the desert. has rich species diversity.
The Western Ghats The dense forests of the Ghats harbour a number of species diverse in nature.
Deccan Peninsula It comprises the Deccan Plateau which is mainly semi-arid.
Gangetic Plains These plains in the north extend up to the foothills of the Himalayas and are rich in biodiversity.
North-East region This region is the richest biodiversity centre in India. It has several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants. It is the domestication centre of plants of banana, mango, citrus and jute which are cultivated.
Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea harbour many endemic species of plants and animals.
Coasts The coasts of India that stretch over 5,500 km are an important biogeographical region. The estuarine tracts along the coasts have a peculiar mangrove vegetation.
India is one of the twelve centres or regions of diversity of crop plants in the world where a rich genetic diversity occurs in several crop plants and their wild progenitors.
Trans-Himalayan region Though with a sparse vegetation, this region has the richest wild sheep and goat community to be found anywhere in the world. The rare snow leopard and the migratory black-necked crane are found in this zone.
Himalayan region This region has one of the highest mountain ranges in the world and is rich in species biodiversity.
Indian Desert The region has extensive grasslands with many species including the endangered great Indian bustard.
Semi-arid region Located adjoining the desert. has rich species diversity.
The Western Ghats The dense forests of the Ghats harbour a number of species diverse in nature.
Deccan Peninsula It comprises the Deccan Plateau which is mainly semi-arid.
Gangetic Plains These plains in the north extend up to the foothills of the Himalayas and are rich in biodiversity.
North-East region This region is the richest biodiversity centre in India. It has several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants. It is the domestication centre of plants of banana, mango, citrus and jute which are cultivated.
Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea harbour many endemic species of plants and animals.
Coasts The coasts of India that stretch over 5,500 km are an important biogeographical region. The estuarine tracts along the coasts have a peculiar mangrove vegetation.
India is one of the twelve centres or regions of diversity of crop plants in the world where a rich genetic diversity occurs in several crop plants and their wild progenitors.
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF LAND ANIMALS
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF LAND ANIMALS The biosphere can be seen as a single distributional unit (representing the largest animal community) as far as global distribution of all animals is concerned. It can be subdivided into two zoogeographical regions, e.g., (a) Land or terrestrial zoogeographical region; and (b) Aquatic (water) zoogeographical region. Zoogeographical regions are otherwise known as faunal regions.
The various facts worth. considering while studying the pattern of global distribution of animals are:
(a) That physical environmental conditions determine the number, abundance and diversity of animals;
(b) That there is zonal pattern in the global distribution of animals and this occurs in two forms (i) horizontal zones, and (ii) vertical zones;
(c) That the animals have radiated in all directions from the centre of their origin. In other words, the distributional patterns of the world fauna are found in concentric zones;
(d) That the diversity of animals of a region is the result of serveral phases of their dispersal and colonisation;
(e) That the concentration of animals could be possible only in the mammals whereas the distribution of other animal species is more widespread and is not specific;
(f) That the distributional patterns of all the animal species are not uniform because the distribution of same animal species is continuous while that of other species is discontinuous or disjunct.
(g) That the oceanic islands are characterised by special types of animals as there has been minimum migration and dispersal of animals and plants to the islands because
of great oceanic barriers.
Several attempts have been made by scientists from time to time to categorise the world animals into faunal regions. However, A.R. Wallace's classification (done is 1876) still remains the most acceptable. Broadly there are six major faunal regions of the world: (a) Palaearctic, (b) Nearctic, (c) Oriental or Indomalaya, (d) Ethiopian, (e) Australian, and (f) Neotropical regions. These faunal regions are further divided into sub-regions and have their region-specific characteristic animals. (See box on page 94 for details).
India's Wildlife Like an extremely wide variety of flora (plants), India is also very rich in fauna (animals). There are about 81,000 known species dispersed across the country. The country has about 2,500 species of fresh and marine water fish. There are nearly 1,200 species of birds.
The various facts worth. considering while studying the pattern of global distribution of animals are:
(a) That physical environmental conditions determine the number, abundance and diversity of animals;
(b) That there is zonal pattern in the global distribution of animals and this occurs in two forms (i) horizontal zones, and (ii) vertical zones;
(c) That the animals have radiated in all directions from the centre of their origin. In other words, the distributional patterns of the world fauna are found in concentric zones;
(d) That the diversity of animals of a region is the result of serveral phases of their dispersal and colonisation;
(e) That the concentration of animals could be possible only in the mammals whereas the distribution of other animal species is more widespread and is not specific;
(f) That the distributional patterns of all the animal species are not uniform because the distribution of same animal species is continuous while that of other species is discontinuous or disjunct.
(g) That the oceanic islands are characterised by special types of animals as there has been minimum migration and dispersal of animals and plants to the islands because
of great oceanic barriers.
Several attempts have been made by scientists from time to time to categorise the world animals into faunal regions. However, A.R. Wallace's classification (done is 1876) still remains the most acceptable. Broadly there are six major faunal regions of the world: (a) Palaearctic, (b) Nearctic, (c) Oriental or Indomalaya, (d) Ethiopian, (e) Australian, and (f) Neotropical regions. These faunal regions are further divided into sub-regions and have their region-specific characteristic animals. (See box on page 94 for details).
India's Wildlife Like an extremely wide variety of flora (plants), India is also very rich in fauna (animals). There are about 81,000 known species dispersed across the country. The country has about 2,500 species of fresh and marine water fish. There are nearly 1,200 species of birds.
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION Wildlife conservation is the wise management of natural environments for the protection and benefits of plants af'ld animals. Wildlife conservation has a long history in ,Europe. In Italy, for example, what is now Gran Paradisco National Park has been a wildlife sanctuary since 1856. Canada created its first national park, Banff National Park, in 1887. Australia set ul? its first national park in 1879. In 1898, the Sabi Game Reserve (now Kruger National Park) was established in what is now South Africa. This reserve was the beginning of the extensive network of national parks and game reserves that covers Africa. The first Asian and South American national parks were created during the early 1900s. A national park is an area set aside by a national government for the preservation of the natural environment. A national park may also be set aside for purposes of public recreation and enjoyment or because of its historical or scientific interest.
The concept of a national park under state ownership originated in the US in 1870, and legislation creating the world's first such park-Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, was signed by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872. The national park system was expanded during the following decades; and the National Park Service was created in 1916 to administer the parks. Partly inspired by the American example, movements in favour of national parks sprang up in many countries.'
Some of the important international agreements/treaties signed to protect wild life and important sites are:
(i) The Ramsar Convention, 1971 It has been established to protect wetlands of the world. As a follow up, in 1988, 46 countries agreed to designate at least one wetland site of international importance in their national territory.
(ii) The Bonn Convention, 1979 It is devoted specifically to the global state of migratory wildlife. Countries who are a party to the convention agree to give the strictest protection to animals listed.
(ii) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wildlife Fauna and Flora, 1975 The CITES is an international treaty designed to protect wildlife from being threatened by international trade. This trade has been responsible for large declines in the number of many plant and animal species.
The concept of a national park under state ownership originated in the US in 1870, and legislation creating the world's first such park-Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, was signed by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872. The national park system was expanded during the following decades; and the National Park Service was created in 1916 to administer the parks. Partly inspired by the American example, movements in favour of national parks sprang up in many countries.'
Some of the important international agreements/treaties signed to protect wild life and important sites are:
(i) The Ramsar Convention, 1971 It has been established to protect wetlands of the world. As a follow up, in 1988, 46 countries agreed to designate at least one wetland site of international importance in their national territory.
(ii) The Bonn Convention, 1979 It is devoted specifically to the global state of migratory wildlife. Countries who are a party to the convention agree to give the strictest protection to animals listed.
(ii) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wildlife Fauna and Flora, 1975 The CITES is an international treaty designed to protect wildlife from being threatened by international trade. This trade has been responsible for large declines in the number of many plant and animal species.
WILDLIFE
The term "wildlife" refers to the wild undomesticated animals living in their natural habitats, such as forests, deserts and grasslands. Wild animals and plants make up an essential part of nature. Wildlife is important to people for four main reasons: (i) beauty, (ii) economic value, (iii) scientific value, and (iv) survival value.
Through the ages, human activities have contributed to the extinction of many wild animals. The Dodo (Mauritius) became extinct in 1680, the Yellow-headed Macaw (Jamaica) in 1765; Stellar's sea cow (Bering Sea) in 1767, and the Great Auk (North Atlantic) in 1844. Many Australian animals became extinct in the 1800s. They include big-eared hopping mice, broad-faced Rat Kangaroos, brown hare Wallabies, Darling Downs hopping mice, Tasmanian emus and White-tipped stick-nest rats. Species that probably became extinct in the early 1900s include Paradise parrots, Pig-footed Bandicoots and Toolache wallabies. The Tasmanian tiger has not been sighted since 1933. Today, human activities threaten the survival of many other animals, such as the African elephant, the Australian numbat, the South-East Asian orangutan, and the North American whooping crane.
Wildlife biologists use three main classifications for animals and plants that face possible extinction: (i) endangered, (ii) threatened, and (iii) rare.
Endangered Species are those that face the most serious threat of extinction, e.g., the California condor. Threatened species are generally abundant in some area, but they face serious dangers due to excessive hunting, fishing or trapping, e.g., the grey wolf. Rare species have small populations. They live in protected environments, and their numbers are not decreasing. The Torrey pine tree of California is an example of rare species.
Through the ages, human activities have contributed to the extinction of many wild animals. The Dodo (Mauritius) became extinct in 1680, the Yellow-headed Macaw (Jamaica) in 1765; Stellar's sea cow (Bering Sea) in 1767, and the Great Auk (North Atlantic) in 1844. Many Australian animals became extinct in the 1800s. They include big-eared hopping mice, broad-faced Rat Kangaroos, brown hare Wallabies, Darling Downs hopping mice, Tasmanian emus and White-tipped stick-nest rats. Species that probably became extinct in the early 1900s include Paradise parrots, Pig-footed Bandicoots and Toolache wallabies. The Tasmanian tiger has not been sighted since 1933. Today, human activities threaten the survival of many other animals, such as the African elephant, the Australian numbat, the South-East Asian orangutan, and the North American whooping crane.
Wildlife biologists use three main classifications for animals and plants that face possible extinction: (i) endangered, (ii) threatened, and (iii) rare.
Endangered Species are those that face the most serious threat of extinction, e.g., the California condor. Threatened species are generally abundant in some area, but they face serious dangers due to excessive hunting, fishing or trapping, e.g., the grey wolf. Rare species have small populations. They live in protected environments, and their numbers are not decreasing. The Torrey pine tree of California is an example of rare species.
CORAL BLEACHING
CORAL BLEACHING Coral bleaching refers to loss of colour of the corals that form the highly fragile ecosystems, coral reefs.
It is a common stress response of corals to various disturbances that occur in the coral reefs which include natural and human-induced events. The natural disturbances that damage the reefs are violent storms, flooding, temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial exposures, predatory outbreaks and epizoo tics. The human-induced factors like overexploitation, over fishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading are responsible for the increased coral reef decline noted. in recent times.
Under stress, the corals expel their zooxanthellae, with whom they have a symbiotic relationship, which leads to their lighter or completely white appearance (as the algae are responsible for the corals' beautiful coloration).
Coral bleaching affects the corals severely. If the bleaching decreases with time, that is, if the stress-causing factors are not too severe, the corals can regain their symbiotic algae in a few weeks or months. They may be then recolonised by the same zooxanthellae species or by a different one. But if the bleaching is severe, the depleted zooxanthellae do not recover and the corals die. The reef itself is then lost.
In an attempt to save coral reefs from bleaching, countries have begun considering development of national strategies. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has developed a 'Coral Bleaching Response Plan' to come up with a comprehensive strategy to detect and respond to widespread coral bleaching events during summer. A combined international effort, wide in scope, is the need of the hour.
It is a common stress response of corals to various disturbances that occur in the coral reefs which include natural and human-induced events. The natural disturbances that damage the reefs are violent storms, flooding, temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial exposures, predatory outbreaks and epizoo tics. The human-induced factors like overexploitation, over fishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading are responsible for the increased coral reef decline noted. in recent times.
Under stress, the corals expel their zooxanthellae, with whom they have a symbiotic relationship, which leads to their lighter or completely white appearance (as the algae are responsible for the corals' beautiful coloration).
Coral bleaching affects the corals severely. If the bleaching decreases with time, that is, if the stress-causing factors are not too severe, the corals can regain their symbiotic algae in a few weeks or months. They may be then recolonised by the same zooxanthellae species or by a different one. But if the bleaching is severe, the depleted zooxanthellae do not recover and the corals die. The reef itself is then lost.
In an attempt to save coral reefs from bleaching, countries have begun considering development of national strategies. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has developed a 'Coral Bleaching Response Plan' to come up with a comprehensive strategy to detect and respond to widespread coral bleaching events during summer. A combined international effort, wide in scope, is the need of the hour.
CORAL REEFS
CORAL REEFS
Coral refers to a particular class of animal belonging to the group cnidaria of phylum Coelenterata. It is a softbodied radially symmetrical marine invertebrate which secretes a calcareous skeleton. A coral reef is formed by the cementing together of millions of these calcareous skeletons over a long period of time. The reefs are of three types-fringe, barrier and atoll. Coral reefs are shallow water tropical marine ecosystems marked by a high biomass production and a rich flora and faunal diversity.
Coral reefs alongwith associated communities cover about 6PO,000 sq km of the oceans (about 0.2 per cent of the total ocean area), but are mainly found between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The life forms in coral reefs and other marine ecosystems are much more varied than those in land habitats. The largest coral reef area is in Indonesia, followed by Australia and Philippines. India has about 50,000 sq km of coral reefs which is about 2 per cent of the world total.
Coral reefs provide carbon dioxide sinks and are sources of huge deposits of calcium carbonate. They provide raw materials for medicinal drugs and formulations. Some of these chemicals have been used in treatment of HIV and cancer. Coral reef ecosystems are good fish breeding grounds. They are natural breakwaters protecting vulnerable beaches from wave action and floods. Coral reefs are of tourist interest as well. Coral is also used in jewellery.
The major reef formations in India are restricted to Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. Patchy coral growth is present at the inter-tidal areas of the central west coast. More than 200 coral species are known in the Indian reefs. In the Indian sub-continent, fringing reefs are found in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay besides the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Platform reefs are found along the Gulf of Kutch, and atolls are found in the Lakshadweep.
In costal areas coral reefs are being destroyed by pollutants, siltation from upstream erosion, use of dynamite and poison in fishing, mining for construction building and extraction for the cement industry. Scientists point out that elevated sea temperatures-possibly due to global warming-cause coral 'bleaching' in which the coral's symbiotic algae,~ which give coral its colour, abandon the cmal. Without these algae the coral will eventually die. The
. destruction of coral reefs will destroy an entire ecosystem, for several marine organisms are associated with them.
The National Committee constituted for conservation and management of wetlands and mangroves also oversees the formulation and implementation of programmes of conservation, management of and research on coral reefs. State level steering committees have also been constituted for the formulation and implementation of the management action plan for the identified coral reefs, namely, Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep, the Gulf of Mannar, and the Gulf of Kutch. The environment ministry has been identified as the national focal point of International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) as well as Coral Reef Degraded Action in the Indian Ocean (CORDIa). On the recommendation of the National Committee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs, the existing centre of the Zoological Survey of India at Port Blair has been designated as the National Institute of Coral Reef Research.
Coral refers to a particular class of animal belonging to the group cnidaria of phylum Coelenterata. It is a softbodied radially symmetrical marine invertebrate which secretes a calcareous skeleton. A coral reef is formed by the cementing together of millions of these calcareous skeletons over a long period of time. The reefs are of three types-fringe, barrier and atoll. Coral reefs are shallow water tropical marine ecosystems marked by a high biomass production and a rich flora and faunal diversity.
Coral reefs alongwith associated communities cover about 6PO,000 sq km of the oceans (about 0.2 per cent of the total ocean area), but are mainly found between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The life forms in coral reefs and other marine ecosystems are much more varied than those in land habitats. The largest coral reef area is in Indonesia, followed by Australia and Philippines. India has about 50,000 sq km of coral reefs which is about 2 per cent of the world total.
Coral reefs provide carbon dioxide sinks and are sources of huge deposits of calcium carbonate. They provide raw materials for medicinal drugs and formulations. Some of these chemicals have been used in treatment of HIV and cancer. Coral reef ecosystems are good fish breeding grounds. They are natural breakwaters protecting vulnerable beaches from wave action and floods. Coral reefs are of tourist interest as well. Coral is also used in jewellery.
The major reef formations in India are restricted to Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. Patchy coral growth is present at the inter-tidal areas of the central west coast. More than 200 coral species are known in the Indian reefs. In the Indian sub-continent, fringing reefs are found in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay besides the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Platform reefs are found along the Gulf of Kutch, and atolls are found in the Lakshadweep.
In costal areas coral reefs are being destroyed by pollutants, siltation from upstream erosion, use of dynamite and poison in fishing, mining for construction building and extraction for the cement industry. Scientists point out that elevated sea temperatures-possibly due to global warming-cause coral 'bleaching' in which the coral's symbiotic algae,~ which give coral its colour, abandon the cmal. Without these algae the coral will eventually die. The
. destruction of coral reefs will destroy an entire ecosystem, for several marine organisms are associated with them.
The National Committee constituted for conservation and management of wetlands and mangroves also oversees the formulation and implementation of programmes of conservation, management of and research on coral reefs. State level steering committees have also been constituted for the formulation and implementation of the management action plan for the identified coral reefs, namely, Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep, the Gulf of Mannar, and the Gulf of Kutch. The environment ministry has been identified as the national focal point of International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) as well as Coral Reef Degraded Action in the Indian Ocean (CORDIa). On the recommendation of the National Committee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs, the existing centre of the Zoological Survey of India at Port Blair has been designated as the National Institute of Coral Reef Research.
Wetlands in India under Ramsar Convention
1. Ashtamudi Wetland 2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves 3. Bhoj Wetland 4. Chilika Lake 5. Deeper Beel 6. East Calcutta Wetlands 7. Harike Lake' 8. Kanjli 9. Keoladeo National Park 10. Kolleru Lake 11. Loktak Lake 12. Point Calimere Sanctuary 13. Pong Dam Lake 14. Ropar 15. Sambhar Lake 16. Sasthamkotta Lake 17. Tsomoriri 18. Vembanad-Kol Wetland 19. Wular Lake 20. Chandratal 21. Renuka 22. Rudrasagar 23. Uppar Ganga 24. Hokarsar 25. Surinsar - Mansar | Kerala Orissa Madhya Pradesh Orissa Assam West Bengal Punjab Punjab Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh Manipur Tamil Nadu Himachal Pradesh Punjab Rajasthan Kerala Jammu and Kashmir Kerala Jammu and Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Tripura Uttar Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir |
THE RAMSAR CONVENTION
THE RAMSAR CONVENTION
India is a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat, generally referred to as Ramsar Convent/on (1971) as it was drafted at Ramsar, Iran.
The Ramsar Convention, it may be recalled, came at the end of a series of conferences held mainly under the auspices of the International Waterfowl and Wetland Research Bureau. The convention is an inter-govemmental agreement for cooperation in the conservation of wetland habitats, and its signatories are called upon to formulate and implement plans to promote the wise use of wetlands in their territories and ensure that the ecological character of these habitats is preserved. India was a member of the Standing Committee of Ramsar Convention during the triennium 1994-96.
Incidentally, the Ramsar Conservation Award was bagged by India for ecological interventions in Chilka Lake through the opening of Maggarmukh mouth, in consultation with the communities, which yielded fruitful results in terms of higher income, higher fish yield, control of weeds and re-appearance of some prawn species which had earlier disappeared. This award was given to Chilka Development Authority, and was received in Valencia in November 2002.
India is a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat, generally referred to as Ramsar Convent/on (1971) as it was drafted at Ramsar, Iran.
The Ramsar Convention, it may be recalled, came at the end of a series of conferences held mainly under the auspices of the International Waterfowl and Wetland Research Bureau. The convention is an inter-govemmental agreement for cooperation in the conservation of wetland habitats, and its signatories are called upon to formulate and implement plans to promote the wise use of wetlands in their territories and ensure that the ecological character of these habitats is preserved. India was a member of the Standing Committee of Ramsar Convention during the triennium 1994-96.
Incidentally, the Ramsar Conservation Award was bagged by India for ecological interventions in Chilka Lake through the opening of Maggarmukh mouth, in consultation with the communities, which yielded fruitful results in terms of higher income, higher fish yield, control of weeds and re-appearance of some prawn species which had earlier disappeared. This award was given to Chilka Development Authority, and was received in Valencia in November 2002.
Wetlands Conservation
Wetlands Conservation Wetlands are complex ecosystems, and encompass a wide range of inland, coastal and marine habitats. They share the characteristics of both wet, and dry environments and show immense diversity based on their genesis, geographical location, hydrological regimes, and substrate factors. They include flood plains, swamps, marshes, tidal marshes, etc.
According to the Ramsar Convention, wetlands are areas of marsh fen, peat land or water, whether artificial or natural, permanent or temporary, with the water static or flowing, brackish or salt, including marine areas, depth of which does not exceed 6 metre. As such mangroves, corals, estuaries, creeks, bays. sea grasses and lakes, etc. are covered under this definition.
India's wetlands are distributed in different geographical regions. They occur in the cold arid zone of Ladakh, the wet humid climate of Imphal, the warm arid zone of Rajasthan, tropical monsoonic central India, and the wet humid zone of the southern peninsula. Most of the wetlands are linked, directly or indirectly, with the major river systems such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
The scheme on conservation and management of wetlands was started in 1987 with the objective of undertaking a comprehensive study of important wetlands representing different ecosystems. A National Committee on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs was constituted to' lay down broad policy guidelines for implementing the programme and identifying wetlands for intensive conservation, management and research.
The main activities under the National Wetland Conservation Programme are: formulation and implementation of management action plans for priority wetlands; promotion of research activities relating to environmental issues and management of wetlands on\ sound econological basis; assessment of wetland resources in India and their loss in time series; identification of wetlands of national importance; international collaboration; monitoring and evaluation. Activities under the action plans include survey and demarcation, protection, afforestation, natural regeneration, restoration, catchment area treatment, pollution control, weed control, wildlife conservation, sustainable fisheries development, environmental education, and certain eco-development activities through peoples' participation.
According to the Ramsar Convention, wetlands are areas of marsh fen, peat land or water, whether artificial or natural, permanent or temporary, with the water static or flowing, brackish or salt, including marine areas, depth of which does not exceed 6 metre. As such mangroves, corals, estuaries, creeks, bays. sea grasses and lakes, etc. are covered under this definition.
India's wetlands are distributed in different geographical regions. They occur in the cold arid zone of Ladakh, the wet humid climate of Imphal, the warm arid zone of Rajasthan, tropical monsoonic central India, and the wet humid zone of the southern peninsula. Most of the wetlands are linked, directly or indirectly, with the major river systems such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
The scheme on conservation and management of wetlands was started in 1987 with the objective of undertaking a comprehensive study of important wetlands representing different ecosystems. A National Committee on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs was constituted to' lay down broad policy guidelines for implementing the programme and identifying wetlands for intensive conservation, management and research.
The main activities under the National Wetland Conservation Programme are: formulation and implementation of management action plans for priority wetlands; promotion of research activities relating to environmental issues and management of wetlands on\ sound econological basis; assessment of wetland resources in India and their loss in time series; identification of wetlands of national importance; international collaboration; monitoring and evaluation. Activities under the action plans include survey and demarcation, protection, afforestation, natural regeneration, restoration, catchment area treatment, pollution control, weed control, wildlife conservation, sustainable fisheries development, environmental education, and certain eco-development activities through peoples' participation.
Mangrove Forest Conservation
Mangrove Forest Conservation Mangroves are salt tolerant plant communities occurring in sheltered coastline areas such as bays, estuaries, lagoons and creeks. They possess some specjalised roots called pneumatophores. These pneumatophores contain pores which enable the trees to breathe, when other roots are submerged under water during high tide. Mangrove forests are reservoirs of a large number of plant and animal species associated together over a long evolutionary period and exhibiting remarkable capacity for salt tolerance. India harbours some of the best mangroves in the world. The total area covered by mangroves in India is estimated at about 5,000 sq km. The mangrove forests stabilise the shoreline and act as a bulwark against encroachments by the sea.
Taking into consideration ecological and economic significance of mangroves and threats faced by them due to various anthropogenic activities, the Government of India launched a scheme on conservation and management of mangroves in 1987. Cent percent central assistance is given under Management Action Plans (MAPs) for undertaking activities like raising mangrove plantations, protection, catchment area treatment, siltation control, pollution abatement, biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource utilisation, survey and demarcation, education and awareness, etc. This is further supplemented by research and developmental activities which can give scientific inputs for. smooth execution of MAPs. A National Management Genetic Resources Centre has been established by the Ministry in Orissa.
Taking into consideration ecological and economic significance of mangroves and threats faced by them due to various anthropogenic activities, the Government of India launched a scheme on conservation and management of mangroves in 1987. Cent percent central assistance is given under Management Action Plans (MAPs) for undertaking activities like raising mangrove plantations, protection, catchment area treatment, siltation control, pollution abatement, biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource utilisation, survey and demarcation, education and awareness, etc. This is further supplemented by research and developmental activities which can give scientific inputs for. smooth execution of MAPs. A National Management Genetic Resources Centre has been established by the Ministry in Orissa.
FOREST DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION IN INDIA
FOREST DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION IN INDIA India has been unable to properly and suitably exploit its forest resources. The reasons for this are many, mainly and specifically overgrazing; indiscriminate felling of trees, depletion of forests through fires; vast areas of unclassed forests awaiting rehabilitation; manner of utilising forest products for fuel and charcoal; lack of proper transport and paths through the forest land; ignoring the commercial value of forests; the reliance upon natural growth rather than planting of trees; lack of information on forest resources and inadequate research facilities.
Realising the importance of forests in economic and environmental well-being of the country, the Government of India has, evolved a well defined forest policy. It has been taking important steps for the preservation and upgradation of forests. Some of the steps are as follows:
The 1952 Forest Policy It fixed a target of 100 million hectares or 33 per cent tree cover for the country. This has still not been achieved. Its main failure was to put on an equal footing the people's need for minor forest produce, industry's demand for raw materials and the state's demand for revenue.
Establishment of the Forest Survey of India Established in June 1981, the Forest Survey of India (FSI) is entrusted with the responsibility of survey of forest resources in the country. The FSI has four zonal offices located at Bangalore, Kolkata, Nagpur and Shimla with headquarters at Dehradun.
The 1988 Forest Policy The policy of 1952 was revised in 1988. The main objectives of the revised forest policy of 1988 are: (i) preservation of ecological balance and conservation of natural heritage; (ii) to control erosion of soil, denudation in catchment areas and extension of sand dunes in the north-west desert region and along the coasts; (Hi) to provide rural and tribal people their requirement of forest products; (iv) utilising products of forestry in the best manner possible; (v) increasing the productivity of forests as well as the forest cover by afforestation programmes among others; and (vi) involving the people to meet the objectives. Also, in 1988, the Forests (Conservation) Act of 1980, to prevent deforestation and use of forest land for non-forestry purposes, was amended. Punishments in case of violations were included. To prevent destruction of forest area by fires, a Modern Forests Fire Control Project was started in 1984 with the assistance of the UNDP.
Realising the importance of forests in economic and environmental well-being of the country, the Government of India has, evolved a well defined forest policy. It has been taking important steps for the preservation and upgradation of forests. Some of the steps are as follows:
The 1952 Forest Policy It fixed a target of 100 million hectares or 33 per cent tree cover for the country. This has still not been achieved. Its main failure was to put on an equal footing the people's need for minor forest produce, industry's demand for raw materials and the state's demand for revenue.
Establishment of the Forest Survey of India Established in June 1981, the Forest Survey of India (FSI) is entrusted with the responsibility of survey of forest resources in the country. The FSI has four zonal offices located at Bangalore, Kolkata, Nagpur and Shimla with headquarters at Dehradun.
The 1988 Forest Policy The policy of 1952 was revised in 1988. The main objectives of the revised forest policy of 1988 are: (i) preservation of ecological balance and conservation of natural heritage; (ii) to control erosion of soil, denudation in catchment areas and extension of sand dunes in the north-west desert region and along the coasts; (Hi) to provide rural and tribal people their requirement of forest products; (iv) utilising products of forestry in the best manner possible; (v) increasing the productivity of forests as well as the forest cover by afforestation programmes among others; and (vi) involving the people to meet the objectives. Also, in 1988, the Forests (Conservation) Act of 1980, to prevent deforestation and use of forest land for non-forestry purposes, was amended. Punishments in case of violations were included. To prevent destruction of forest area by fires, a Modern Forests Fire Control Project was started in 1984 with the assistance of the UNDP.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL VEGETATION
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL VEGETATION The natural vegetation of India is diverse owing to varied biotic conditions as well as unequal rainfall. A noteworthy classification of Indian vegetation is that given by Champion and Seth who base it on three factors-temperature, altitude and rainfall. They have evolved eight broad types.
Tropical Evergreen or Rain Forests These are dense forests of luxuriant growth which look evergreen as their trees shed leaves at different times of the year. They are prevalent in areas where the annual rainfall is over 200 em and the average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent. The annual temperature is 25°C to 27''<: on an average. Mahogany, bamboo, ivory wood, ebony, rubber trees are the economically significant trees of these forests. Such forests are found in the north-east. eastern regions of subtropical Himalaya (Terai), western portions of the Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar islands. The forests are divided as follows.
Tropical Wet Evergreell Forests They are found in areas where the annual rainfall is above 250 em. The many storeyed forests have an undergrowth of bamboos, ferns, canes and climbers. They contain economically valuable species such as ebony, rosewood, iron wood, champa, toon, etc. They occur in some of the north-eastern states, the Andaman and Nicobar islands and western parts of the Western Ghats.
Tropical Semi-Evergreell Forests Found in regions where the annual rainfall is below 200 em, these forests have evergreen trees mixed with deciduous ones. The mean annual temperature in these forests ranges from 24°C to 2rC and humidity is about 80 per cent. Trees have heavy barks and climbers, and buttressed trunks at many places. Important trees include champa, canes, ferns, orchids, rosewood, benteak, kadam, semul, laurel, etc. These forests occur in regions of upper Assam, lower eastern Himalaya, Orissa, and the Andaman and Nicobars.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests Also called the Monsoon forests, they occur where annual rainfall is 150 to 200 cm and the mean annual temperature is about 2627°C. The forests are characterised by few species and the undergrowth is of canes and bamboos. Humidity varies from 60 to 80 per cent. They are found in the interior of the Indian Plateau and the Siwalik east of the Yamuna river. Sal, teak, tendu, sissoo, mahua, sandal, shisham are the important trees. Many of the trees are known for their valuable timber useful for constructional purposes and in furniture. The trees shed their leaves during spring and early summer.
Littoral or Swamp Forests Also called tidal forests, these occur in and around the tidal creeks and along the deltas of the rivers Ganga, Mahanadi, Krislma and Godavari. The trees, mainly evergreen, have profuse growth and stiltlike roots. The densest trees are found in the great Sunderban delta which has the sundari trees in ablmdance. Rhizophora and Nipa fruiticans (a type of palm) also grow in these forests. On the tropical tide-washed coasts where mud and silt have accumulated, dense mangrove forests flourish.
Dry Tropical Forests Such forests are mostly prevalent in regions with an annual rainfall of 90 to 130 em, a mean annual temperature of 23 to 27"C and humidity ranging between 50 and 60 per cent. Their subtypes arc as follows.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests They run from the Himalayan foothills to Kanyakwmiri and comprise important trees -like bijasal, teak, tendu, amaltas, khair, palas, rosewood and axlewood. The tracts of these forests have a low canopy of grasses and shrubs in some places which has been cleared for agriculture or casuarina plantations.
Tropical TllOnt Forests These are mostly prevalent in those areas where rainfall is very low, i.e., 50 cm to 70 cm, the mean annual temperature is 25°C to 2rC and humidity is rather low, i.e., less than 47 per cent. Kutch, Saurashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, the Upper Ganga plains and the Deccan Plateau consist of such forests. Small trees such as khair, babul, thor, khejra, kanju, ak and neem are found in these forests.
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests From Tamil Nadu to Nellore, such type of forests cover areas, where the mean rainfall is about 100 cm, the alillual temperature is 28°C and the mean annual humidity is 74 per cent. Trees are 12 m high with canopies. Bamboos are rare and the grass is not conspicuous. The important species of trees are khirni, jamun, kokko, toddy palm, casuarina, neem, cane, etc.
Riparian Forests They are common in wet places particularly along river banks and other wetlands where rainfall is less than 50 cm. Short trees and grasses such as munj and kans are abundant. Neem, shisham, pipal, babul, tamarind are common in such regions.
Subtropical Broad Leaved Hill Forests Such forests are common in the highlands of Bastar, Pachmari, Pal ani Hills, Khasi Hills on the lower slopes of the Himalaya in Assam and West Bengal. The mean annual temperature is about 18nC to 21°C, the mean annual, rainfall is about 75 to 125 cm and the humidity is 80 per cent. With an abundance of evergreen trees, these forests are called Shola forests in southern India.
Montane Wet Temperate Forests Generally at a height of 1800-3000 m above sea level especially in the hills of, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and the eastern Himalaya, the forests occur in regions with a mean annual temperature of about
11°C to 14"C and a mean annual rainfall of 150 to 300 cm.The important trees are oaks, magnolia, chilauni, birch, plum, michilus, deodar and hemlock.
Montane Moist Temperate Forests Such type of forests occur in the temperate eastern and western Himalaya, i.e., in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Darjeeling. They are mainly com-, posed of coniferous species generally 30 to 50 m high and mosses and ferns that grow on trees. The important trees are pine, deodar, silver fir, oak, beach, rhododendrons, maple, etc.
Alpine Forests As the name suggests, these forests I cover the Alpine areas in the Himalayas, i.e" at a height of 2880 m to 3700 m. They constitute dwarf shrubs of juniper, fir, pine, birch and rhododendrons, On the southem Himalayan slopes, the Alpine forests degenerate into a low evergreen scrub. On the northern slopes of the Himalaya, they represent a dry, xerophytic vegetation. I Grasslands Though the Indian grasslands are not I comparable to the savannah or steppe, they do occur on I wet soil ground and in the sal belt and some hilly areas,
They are sub-divided as follows,
Low-land Grasses Occurring in regions receiving 31 to 200 cm of rainfall where the temperature is high during summers, they are found in the plains of upper IndiaPunjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Bihar and north-west Assam. These grasses are found on many soil varieties and are suitable for cattle-breeding.
Upland or Hilly Grasses They are found at a height of over 1,000 m in the Himalaya and in the cleared forest areas of the Western Ghats in the Karnataka region. They are found among small tracts of Shola forests in South India.
Riverine Grasses Found in the northern part of India, they form the Bhabar pastures which are important grazing grounds for buffaloes and cattle.
Tropical Evergreen or Rain Forests These are dense forests of luxuriant growth which look evergreen as their trees shed leaves at different times of the year. They are prevalent in areas where the annual rainfall is over 200 em and the average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent. The annual temperature is 25°C to 27''<: on an average. Mahogany, bamboo, ivory wood, ebony, rubber trees are the economically significant trees of these forests. Such forests are found in the north-east. eastern regions of subtropical Himalaya (Terai), western portions of the Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar islands. The forests are divided as follows.
Tropical Wet Evergreell Forests They are found in areas where the annual rainfall is above 250 em. The many storeyed forests have an undergrowth of bamboos, ferns, canes and climbers. They contain economically valuable species such as ebony, rosewood, iron wood, champa, toon, etc. They occur in some of the north-eastern states, the Andaman and Nicobar islands and western parts of the Western Ghats.
Tropical Semi-Evergreell Forests Found in regions where the annual rainfall is below 200 em, these forests have evergreen trees mixed with deciduous ones. The mean annual temperature in these forests ranges from 24°C to 2rC and humidity is about 80 per cent. Trees have heavy barks and climbers, and buttressed trunks at many places. Important trees include champa, canes, ferns, orchids, rosewood, benteak, kadam, semul, laurel, etc. These forests occur in regions of upper Assam, lower eastern Himalaya, Orissa, and the Andaman and Nicobars.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests Also called the Monsoon forests, they occur where annual rainfall is 150 to 200 cm and the mean annual temperature is about 2627°C. The forests are characterised by few species and the undergrowth is of canes and bamboos. Humidity varies from 60 to 80 per cent. They are found in the interior of the Indian Plateau and the Siwalik east of the Yamuna river. Sal, teak, tendu, sissoo, mahua, sandal, shisham are the important trees. Many of the trees are known for their valuable timber useful for constructional purposes and in furniture. The trees shed their leaves during spring and early summer.
Littoral or Swamp Forests Also called tidal forests, these occur in and around the tidal creeks and along the deltas of the rivers Ganga, Mahanadi, Krislma and Godavari. The trees, mainly evergreen, have profuse growth and stiltlike roots. The densest trees are found in the great Sunderban delta which has the sundari trees in ablmdance. Rhizophora and Nipa fruiticans (a type of palm) also grow in these forests. On the tropical tide-washed coasts where mud and silt have accumulated, dense mangrove forests flourish.
Dry Tropical Forests Such forests are mostly prevalent in regions with an annual rainfall of 90 to 130 em, a mean annual temperature of 23 to 27"C and humidity ranging between 50 and 60 per cent. Their subtypes arc as follows.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests They run from the Himalayan foothills to Kanyakwmiri and comprise important trees -like bijasal, teak, tendu, amaltas, khair, palas, rosewood and axlewood. The tracts of these forests have a low canopy of grasses and shrubs in some places which has been cleared for agriculture or casuarina plantations.
Tropical TllOnt Forests These are mostly prevalent in those areas where rainfall is very low, i.e., 50 cm to 70 cm, the mean annual temperature is 25°C to 2rC and humidity is rather low, i.e., less than 47 per cent. Kutch, Saurashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, the Upper Ganga plains and the Deccan Plateau consist of such forests. Small trees such as khair, babul, thor, khejra, kanju, ak and neem are found in these forests.
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests From Tamil Nadu to Nellore, such type of forests cover areas, where the mean rainfall is about 100 cm, the alillual temperature is 28°C and the mean annual humidity is 74 per cent. Trees are 12 m high with canopies. Bamboos are rare and the grass is not conspicuous. The important species of trees are khirni, jamun, kokko, toddy palm, casuarina, neem, cane, etc.
Riparian Forests They are common in wet places particularly along river banks and other wetlands where rainfall is less than 50 cm. Short trees and grasses such as munj and kans are abundant. Neem, shisham, pipal, babul, tamarind are common in such regions.
Subtropical Broad Leaved Hill Forests Such forests are common in the highlands of Bastar, Pachmari, Pal ani Hills, Khasi Hills on the lower slopes of the Himalaya in Assam and West Bengal. The mean annual temperature is about 18nC to 21°C, the mean annual, rainfall is about 75 to 125 cm and the humidity is 80 per cent. With an abundance of evergreen trees, these forests are called Shola forests in southern India.
Montane Wet Temperate Forests Generally at a height of 1800-3000 m above sea level especially in the hills of, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and the eastern Himalaya, the forests occur in regions with a mean annual temperature of about
11°C to 14"C and a mean annual rainfall of 150 to 300 cm.The important trees are oaks, magnolia, chilauni, birch, plum, michilus, deodar and hemlock.
Montane Moist Temperate Forests Such type of forests occur in the temperate eastern and western Himalaya, i.e., in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Darjeeling. They are mainly com-, posed of coniferous species generally 30 to 50 m high and mosses and ferns that grow on trees. The important trees are pine, deodar, silver fir, oak, beach, rhododendrons, maple, etc.
Alpine Forests As the name suggests, these forests I cover the Alpine areas in the Himalayas, i.e" at a height of 2880 m to 3700 m. They constitute dwarf shrubs of juniper, fir, pine, birch and rhododendrons, On the southem Himalayan slopes, the Alpine forests degenerate into a low evergreen scrub. On the northern slopes of the Himalaya, they represent a dry, xerophytic vegetation. I Grasslands Though the Indian grasslands are not I comparable to the savannah or steppe, they do occur on I wet soil ground and in the sal belt and some hilly areas,
They are sub-divided as follows,
Low-land Grasses Occurring in regions receiving 31 to 200 cm of rainfall where the temperature is high during summers, they are found in the plains of upper IndiaPunjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Bihar and north-west Assam. These grasses are found on many soil varieties and are suitable for cattle-breeding.
Upland or Hilly Grasses They are found at a height of over 1,000 m in the Himalaya and in the cleared forest areas of the Western Ghats in the Karnataka region. They are found among small tracts of Shola forests in South India.
Riverine Grasses Found in the northern part of India, they form the Bhabar pastures which are important grazing grounds for buffaloes and cattle.
STATE OF FOREST SURVEY (INDIA)
STATE OF FOREST SURVEY (INDIA) 2005 The lOti State of the Forest Report (SFR) 2005 of the Ministry 0 Environment and Forest (MoEF) was released in April 2008 It contains wealth of statistics and spatial information abou forest and tree cover in the country.
Highlights
.India's forest cover is 67.71 million hi (20.60 per cent of geographical area)
. Of this, 5.46 million ha (1.66 per cent) includes vel'; dense forest (VDF), 33.26 million ha (10.12 per cent moderately dense forest (MDF), and the rest 28.29 miliiOl ha (8.82 per cent) includes open forests (OF) including 0.4: million ha mangroves.
. Excluding the areas (18.16 million ha) not availabl, for tree planting/ afforestation due to climate, edaphic anI physical reasons falling in mountainous region under per manent snow, glaciers/rocks; the forest cover of Indi, comes to 21.81 per cent.
. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area of 7.6 milliol ha under forest cover (11.22 per cent of the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh (10.01 per cent) Chhattisgarh (8.25 per cent), Orissa (7.15 per cent), anI Maharashtra (7.01 per cent).
. The seven north-east states together account for 25.1
per cent of the total forests in India.
. In the 124 hill districts of India, the forest cover i 38.85 per cent (52.4 per cent by excluding area unavailabl for planning).
. In the 188 tribal districts of India, the forest cove is 36.81 per cent of geographical area which is 60.11 pe cent of the total forest cover of India.
. The mangrove cover in India is 4,445 sq. km. Of thi1 1.147 sq. km (25.8 per cent) is very dense, 1,629 sq. kr (36.6 per cent) is moderately dense, and the rest 1,669 sc km (37.6 per cent) is open.
. West Bengal has the maximum mangrove cove (47.65 per cent) of the country's total.
. A comparison of the forest covers of India betwee the present and preceding assessment (2003) shows the' there is marginal loss of 728 sq. km during the period 200:< 2004. This constitutes 0.11 per cent of the forest cover c the country.
. The total tree cover of the country has been assesse, as 91,663 (2.79 per cent of geographical area).
. The total forest and tree cover of India has bee assessed as 768,751 sq. km (23.4 per cent of geographic< area and 24.76 per cent excluding area unavailable fCi planting)
.. The total growing stock of wood in India is 6.22 billion mJ.
. The estimate of growing stock of the forest is 4.6 billion mJ. The growing stock of trees outside forests (TOF) has been estimated to be 1.61 billion m3. The average growing stock is 80.9 m3 per ha in 76.88 million ha of forest and tree cover.
. India has lost 728 sq km forest between 2002 and 2004 despite numerous forestry programmes at the Central and state levels.
. Only 23.4 per cent of the total land mass is under fbrest and tree cover, compared to the figure in the 2003 report.
In India, says the Eleventh Plan document, per capita forest- area is only 0.064 ha against the world average of 0.64 ha (FAO). The productivity of our forests is only 1.34 m3/ha/year against the world average of 2.1 m3/ha/year. While 78 per cent of the forest area is subjected to heavy grazing and other unregulated uses, adversely affecting productivity and regeneration, nearly 10 MH of forest area is subjected to shifting cultivation. Land use changes such as diversion of community areas for non-biomass purposes have directed nearly all biomass needs towards forests.
Highlights
.India's forest cover is 67.71 million hi (20.60 per cent of geographical area)
. Of this, 5.46 million ha (1.66 per cent) includes vel'; dense forest (VDF), 33.26 million ha (10.12 per cent moderately dense forest (MDF), and the rest 28.29 miliiOl ha (8.82 per cent) includes open forests (OF) including 0.4: million ha mangroves.
. Excluding the areas (18.16 million ha) not availabl, for tree planting/ afforestation due to climate, edaphic anI physical reasons falling in mountainous region under per manent snow, glaciers/rocks; the forest cover of Indi, comes to 21.81 per cent.
. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area of 7.6 milliol ha under forest cover (11.22 per cent of the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh (10.01 per cent) Chhattisgarh (8.25 per cent), Orissa (7.15 per cent), anI Maharashtra (7.01 per cent).
. The seven north-east states together account for 25.1
per cent of the total forests in India.
. In the 124 hill districts of India, the forest cover i 38.85 per cent (52.4 per cent by excluding area unavailabl for planning).
. In the 188 tribal districts of India, the forest cove is 36.81 per cent of geographical area which is 60.11 pe cent of the total forest cover of India.
. The mangrove cover in India is 4,445 sq. km. Of thi1 1.147 sq. km (25.8 per cent) is very dense, 1,629 sq. kr (36.6 per cent) is moderately dense, and the rest 1,669 sc km (37.6 per cent) is open.
. West Bengal has the maximum mangrove cove (47.65 per cent) of the country's total.
. A comparison of the forest covers of India betwee the present and preceding assessment (2003) shows the' there is marginal loss of 728 sq. km during the period 200:< 2004. This constitutes 0.11 per cent of the forest cover c the country.
. The total tree cover of the country has been assesse, as 91,663 (2.79 per cent of geographical area).
. The total forest and tree cover of India has bee assessed as 768,751 sq. km (23.4 per cent of geographic< area and 24.76 per cent excluding area unavailable fCi planting)
.. The total growing stock of wood in India is 6.22 billion mJ.
. The estimate of growing stock of the forest is 4.6 billion mJ. The growing stock of trees outside forests (TOF) has been estimated to be 1.61 billion m3. The average growing stock is 80.9 m3 per ha in 76.88 million ha of forest and tree cover.
. India has lost 728 sq km forest between 2002 and 2004 despite numerous forestry programmes at the Central and state levels.
. Only 23.4 per cent of the total land mass is under fbrest and tree cover, compared to the figure in the 2003 report.
In India, says the Eleventh Plan document, per capita forest- area is only 0.064 ha against the world average of 0.64 ha (FAO). The productivity of our forests is only 1.34 m3/ha/year against the world average of 2.1 m3/ha/year. While 78 per cent of the forest area is subjected to heavy grazing and other unregulated uses, adversely affecting productivity and regeneration, nearly 10 MH of forest area is subjected to shifting cultivation. Land use changes such as diversion of community areas for non-biomass purposes have directed nearly all biomass needs towards forests.
LUMBERING
Lumbering is the harvesting and production of trees for different uses. It is an important economic activity in the temperate regions of the world, Le.. American and European countries. The Rocky Mountains of the USA and the temperate coniferous belts of Canada are famous for lumbering. In Canada, many farmers, who are engaged in agriculture and other occupations in the southern part, migrate to northern coniferous forests to work as lumberers. These farmers are known as lumberjacks. In Europe, lumbering is done In Norway, Sweden, Finland, the slopes of the Alps, and the hills of central Rhine. Lumbering is more important in the western part of Siberia (Russia) than its eastern part because of the low density of population as well as low demands for" timber in the eastern part.
Winter is the favoured season for lumbering because (i) the frozen ground makes transportation of wood logs easier, (ii) the air is clear and free from any insects, and (ili) there is little undergrowth to hinder transportation.
Winter is the favoured season for lumbering because (i) the frozen ground makes transportation of wood logs easier, (ii) the air is clear and free from any insects, and (ili) there is little undergrowth to hinder transportation.
FOREST COVERAGE AND DISTRIBUTION
FOREST COVERAGE AND DISTRIBUTION The forests in India are very unevenly distributed. They are most scarce in the Gangetic area.
India has been divided into the following five regions for studying forest distribution in the country. Percentage of forest coverage in these five regions is as follows:
(a) Himalayan region 18 per cent
(b) North Plain region 5 per cent
(c) Peninsular Hills and Plateau regions 57 per cent
(d) Western Ghats and Coastal regions 10 per cent
(e) Eastern Ghats and Coastal regions 10 per cent
Total 100 per cent
India has been divided into the following five regions for studying forest distribution in the country. Percentage of forest coverage in these five regions is as follows:
(a) Himalayan region 18 per cent
(b) North Plain region 5 per cent
(c) Peninsular Hills and Plateau regions 57 per cent
(d) Western Ghats and Coastal regions 10 per cent
(e) Eastern Ghats and Coastal regions 10 per cent
Total 100 per cent
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